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In sociology, sociological perspectives, theories, or paradigms are complex theoretical and methodological frameworks used to analyze and explain objects of social study. They facilitate organizing sociological knowledge.[1] Sociological theory is constantly evolving, and can never be presumed to be complete.[1]
Theory is informed by epistemological discussions as to the most reliable and valid social research methods to use in the conduct of social science. Perspectives also relate to core assumptions regarding the ontological nature of the social world. Theory is thus informed by historical debates over positivism and antipositivism, debates over the primacy of structure and agency, as well as debates relating to other fundamental key concepts in the social sciences and humanities in general (e.g. materialism, idealism, determinism, dialecticism, modernity, globalization, postmodernity, and so on).
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Sociological theory is such a broad field of study and thought, that some researches have suggested new subcategories. Allan[2] suggest the terms "Sociological" theory and "social" theory. Social theory, according to Allan, focuses on commentary and critique of modern society rather than explanation.[2] Prominent social theorists include Jürgen Habermas, Pierre Bourdieu, Anthony Giddens, Erving Goffman, Michel Foucault, Dorothy Smith, Alfred Schutz, Jeffrey Alexander, and Jacques Derrida.[3] Note however that theese authors theories are very much different. What unifies them is only that they do not use statistical test in their works, but several where in fact very much empirical in their studies. E.g. Goffman, who got himself committed to a psychiatric ward in order to study the microsociology of instituionalised madness.
Sociological theory, on the other hand, is centered on the attempt to create abstract, testable propositions about society.[2] Whereas sociological theory often relies heavily on the scientific method, aims for objectivity, and attempts to avoid passing value judgments, social theory is often closer to Continental philosophy, more subjective, and is much more likely to use the language of values and judgment, referring to concepts as "good" or "bad".[3] Prominent sociological theorists include Talcott Parsons, Robert K. Merton, Randall Collins, James Samuel Coleman, Peter Blau, Immanuel Wallerstein, George Homans, Harrison White, Theda Skocpol, Gerhard Lenski, Pierre van den Berghe and Jonathan H. Turner.[3]
Blurry boundaries affect social science, and there are prominent scholars who could be seen as being in between social and sociological theories, such as Harold Garfinkel, Herbert Blumer, and Claude Lévi-Strauss.[3]
Sociological theory is constantly evolving, and can never be presumed to be complete.[1] New sociological theories build upon the work of their predecessors and add to them, but classic sociological theories are still considered important and current.[4]
Whereas the field of sociology itself and sociological theory by extension is relatively new, dating to 18th and 19th centuries (see history of sociology), it is closely tied to a much older field of social sciences (and social theory) in general.[1] Sociology has separated itself from the other social sciences with its focus on society, a concept that goes beyond nation, and includes communities, organizations and relationships.[5]
Some of the key developments that influenced sociological theory were: the rise of individualism, the appearance of the modern state, industrialization and capitalism, colonization and globalization, and the world wars.[6] Those and similar developments challenged contemporary thinkers, inspiring them to question whether existing theories can explain the observed reality, and to build on them, creating alternate theories, in search for the explanation of the observed society.
Some of the major general sociological theories (and their variants) include:
Sociologists have developed various theories about social movements [Kendall, 2005]. Chronologically (by approximate date of origin) they include:
Sociologists have been active in developing theories about the nature of science and technology:
Methods of studying Sociology: Positivism: Social positivists believe that social processes should be studied in terms of cause and effect using 'the' scientific method.